SIST EN IEC 62941:2020
(Main)Terrestrial photovoltaic (PV) modules - Quality system for PV module manufacturing
Terrestrial photovoltaic (PV) modules - Quality system for PV module manufacturing
EN-IEC 62941 is applicable to organizations manufacturing photovoltaic (PV) modulescertified to IEC 61215 series and IEC 62108 for design qualification and type approval andIEC 61730 for safety qualification and type approval. The design qualification and typeapproval of PV modules depend on appropriate methods for product and process design, aswell as appropriate control of materials and processes used to manufacture the product. Thisdocument lays out best practices for product design, manufacturing processes, and selectionand control of materials used in the manufacture of PV modules that have met therequirements of IEC 61215 series, IEC 61730, or IEC 62108. These standards also form thebasis for factory audit criteria of such sites by various certifying and auditory bodies.The object of this document is to provide a framework for the improved confidence in theongoing consistency of performance and reliability of certified PV modules. The requirementsof this document are defined with the assumption that the quality management system of theorganization has already fulfilled the requirements of ISO 9001 or equivalent qualitymanagement system. This document is not intended to replace or remove any requirements ofISO9001 or equivalent quality management system. By maintaining a manufacturing system inaccordance with this document, PV modules are expected to maintain their performance asdetermined from the test sequences in IEC 61215 series, IEC 62108, or IEC 61730.This document is applicable to all PV modules independent of design and technology, i.e. flatpanel, concentrator photovoltaic (CPV). Quality controls for CPV and nonconventional flatplatemanufacturing will differ somewhat from those of more conventional designs; thisdocument has not considered these differences.
Terrestrische Photovoltaik(PV)-Module - Qualitätssystem zur Fertigung von PV-Modulen
Modules photovoltaïques (PV) pour applications terrestres - Système de qualité pour la fabrication des modules photovoltaïques
IEC 62941:2019 que aux organismes fabriquant des modules photovoltaïques (PV) certifiés au titre de la série IEC 61215 et de l'IEC 62108 pour la qualification de la conception et l'homologation et de l'IEC 61730 pour la qualification de la sûreté de fonctionnement et l'homologation. La qualification de la conception et l'homologation des modules PV reposent sur des méthodes appropriées de conception du produit et des processus, ainsi que sur une maîtrise adéquate des matériaux et procédés employés lors de la fabrication du produit. Le présent document établit les meilleures pratiques en ce qui concerne la conception des produits, les processus de fabrication, le choix et la maîtrise des matériaux utilisés dans la fabrication des modules PV satisfaisant aux exigences de la série IEC 61215, de l'IEC 61730 ou de l'IEC 62108. Ces normes constituent également la base des critères pour l'audit d'usine de ces sites par différents organismes de certification et d'audit.
Le présent document a pour objectif de fournir un cadre en vue de renforcer la confiance en ce qui concerne la cohérence constante des performances et la fiabilité des modules PV certifiés. Les exigences du présent document sont définies en partant de l'hypothèse que le système de management de la qualité de l'organisme satisfait d'ores et déjà aux exigences de l'ISO 9001 ou d'un système de management de la qualité équivalent. Le présent document n'est pas destiné à remplacer ou à supprimer les exigences de d'ISO 9001 ou d'un système de management de la qualité équivalent. En respectant un système de fabrication conforme au présent document, il est attendu que les modules PV conservent leurs performances telles que déterminées par les séquences d'essais de la série IEC 61215, l'IEC 62108 ou l'IEC 61730.
Prizemni fotonapetostni (PV) moduli - Sistem kakovosti za proizvodnjo PV-modulov
General Information
Standards Content (Sample)
SLOVENSKI STANDARD
SIST EN IEC 62941:2020
01-maj-2020
Prizemni fotonapetostni (PV) moduli - Sistem kakovosti za proizvodnjo PV-
modulov
Terrestrial photovoltaic (PV) modules - Quality system for PV module manufacturing
Terrestrische Photovoltaik(PV)-Module - Qualitätssystem zur Fertigung von PV-Modulen
Modules photovoltaïques (PV) pour applications terrestres - Système de qualité pour la
fabrication des modules photovoltaïques
Ta slovenski standard je istoveten z: EN IEC 62941:2020
ICS:
03.120.99 Drugi standardi v zvezi s Other standards related to
kakovostjo quality
27.160 Sončna energija Solar energy engineering
SIST EN IEC 62941:2020 en
2003-01.Slovenski inštitut za standardizacijo. Razmnoževanje celote ali delov tega standarda ni dovoljeno.
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SIST EN IEC 62941:2020
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SIST EN IEC 62941:2020
EUROPEAN STANDARD EN IEC 62941
NORME EUROPÉENNE
EUROPÄISCHE NORM
March 2020
ICS 27.160
English Version
Terrestrial photovoltaic (PV) modules - Quality system for PV
module manufacturing
(IEC 62941:2019)
Modules photovoltaïques (PV) pour applications terrestres - Terrestrische Photovoltaik(PV)-Module - Qualitätssystem
Système de qualité pour la fabrication des modules zur Fertigung von PV-Modulen
photovoltaïques (IEC 62941:2019)
(IEC 62941:2019)
This European Standard was approved by CENELEC on 2020-01-16. CENELEC members are bound to comply with the CEN/CENELEC
Internal Regulations which stipulate the conditions for giving this European Standard the status of a national standard without any alteration.
Up-to-date lists and bibliographical references concerning such national standards may be obtained on application to the CEN-CENELEC
Management Centre or to any CENELEC member.
This European Standard exists in three official versions (English, French, German). A version in any other language made by translation
under the responsibility of a CENELEC member into its own language and notified to the CEN-CENELEC Management Centre has the
same status as the official versions.
CENELEC members are the national electrotechnical committees of Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, the Czech Republic,
Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, the
Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Republic of North Macedonia, Romania, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland,
Turkey and the United Kingdom.
European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization
Comité Européen de Normalisation Electrotechnique
Europäisches Komitee für Elektrotechnische Normung
CEN-CENELEC Management Centre: Rue de la Science 23, B-1040 Brussels
© 2020 CENELEC All rights of exploitation in any form and by any means reserved worldwide for CENELEC Members.
Ref. No. EN IEC 62941:2020 E
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SIST EN IEC 62941:2020
EN IEC 62941:2020 (E)
European foreword
The text of document 82/1635/FDIS, future edition 1 of IEC 62941, prepared by IEC/TC 82 "Solar
photovoltaic energy systems" was submitted to the IEC-CENELEC parallel vote and approved by
CENELEC as EN IEC 62941:2020.
The following dates are fixed:
• latest date by which the document has to be implemented at national (dop) 2020-10-16
level by publication of an identical national standard or by endorsement
• latest date by which the national standards conflicting with the (dow) 2023-01-16
document have to be withdrawn
Attention is drawn to the possibility that some of the elements of this document may be the subject of
patent rights. CENELEC shall not be held responsible for identifying any or all such patent rights.
Endorsement notice
The text of the International Standard IEC 62941:2019 was approved by CENELEC as a European
Standard without any modification.
2
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EN IEC 62941:2020 (E)
Annex ZA
(normative)
Normative references to international publications
with their corresponding European publications
The following documents are referred to in the text in such a way that some or all of their content
constitutes requirements of this document. For dated references, only the edition cited applies. For
undated references, the latest edition of the referenced document (including any amendments)
applies.
NOTE 1 Where an International Publication has been modified by common modifications, indicated by (mod), the relevant
EN/HD applies.
NOTE 2 Up-to-date information on the latest versions of the European Standards listed in this annex is available here:
www.cenelec.eu.
Publication Year Title EN/HD Year
IEC 60812 - Failure modes and effects analysis (FMEA EN IEC 60812 -
and FMECA)
IEC 60891 - Photovoltaic devices - Procedures for EN 60891 -
temperature and irradiance corrections to
measured I-V characteristics
IEC 60904-1 - Photovoltaic devices - Part 1: EN 60904-1 -
Measurement of photovoltaic current-
voltage characteristics
IEC 60904-2 - Photovoltaic devices - Part 2: EN 60904-2 -
Requirements for photovoltaic reference
devices
IEC 60904-3 - Photovoltaic devices - Part 3: EN IEC 60904-3 -
Measurement principles for terrestrial
photovoltaic (PV) solar devices with
reference spectral irradiance data
IEC 60904-4 - Photovoltaic devices - Part 4: Reference EN IEC 60904-4 -
solar devices - Procedures for establishing
calibration traceability
IEC 60904-7 - Photovoltaic devices - Part 7: Computation EN IEC 60904-7 -
of the spectral mismatch correction for
measurements of photovoltaic devices
IEC 60904-9 - Photovoltaic devices - Part 9: Solar EN 60904-9 -
simulator performance requirements
IEC 61215 - Crystalline silicon terrestrial photovoltaic - -
(PV) modules - Design qualification and
type approval
3
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SIST EN IEC 62941:2020
EN IEC 62941:2020 (E)
IEC 61730-1 - Photovoltaic (PV) module safety EN IEC 61730-1 -
qualification - Part 1: Requirements for
construction
IEC 61730-2 - Photovoltaic (PV) module safety EN IEC 61730-2 -
qualification - Part 2: Requirements for
testing
IEC 61853-1 - Photovoltaic (PV) module performance - -
testing and energy rating - Part 1:
Irradiance and temperature performance
measurements and power rating
IEC 62108 - Concentrator photovoltaic (CPV) modules EN 62108 -
and assemblies - Design qualification and
type approval
IEC 62759-1 - Photovoltaic (PV) modules - EN 62759-1 -
Transportation testing - Part 1:
Transportation and shipping of module
package units
ISO 9001 - Quality management systems - EN ISO 9001 2015
Requirements
IEC/TS 61836 - Solar photovoltaic energy systems - - -
Terms, definitions and symbols
IEC/TS 62915 - Photovoltaic (PV) modules - Type - -
approval, design and safety qualification -
Retesting
ISO/IEC 2008 Uncertainty of measurement - Part 3: - -
Guide 98-3 Guide to the expression of uncertainty in
measurement (GUM:1995)
4
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SIST EN IEC 62941:2020
IEC 62941
®
Edition 1.0 2019-12
INTERNATIONAL
STANDARD
NORME
INTERNATIONALE
Terrestrial photovoltaic (PV) modules – Quality system for PV module
manufacturing
Modules photovoltaïques (PV) pour applications terrestres – Système de qualité
pour la fabrication des modules photovoltaïques
INTERNATIONAL
ELECTROTECHNICAL
COMMISSION
COMMISSION
ELECTROTECHNIQUE
INTERNATIONALE
ICS 27.160 ISBN 978-2-8322-7625-9
Warning! Make sure that you obtained this publication from an authorized distributor.
Attention! Veuillez vous assurer que vous avez obtenu cette publication via un distributeur agréé.
® Registered trademark of the International Electrotechnical Commission
Marque déposée de la Commission Electrotechnique Internationale
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SIST EN IEC 62941:2020
– 2 – IEC 62941:2019 © IEC 2019
CONTENTS
FOREWORD . 4
1 Scope . 6
2 Normative references . 6
3 Terms, definitions and abbreviated terms . 7
4 Support . 10
4.1 Resources . 10
4.1.1 Succession planning . 10
4.1.2 Provision of resources for product warranty system . 10
4.2 Monitoring and measuring resources. 11
4.2.1 Control of monitoring and measuring equipment . 11
4.2.2 Control of performance rating (IV) measurement equipment . 11
4.3 Control of documented information. 11
5 Operation . 11
5.1 Operational planning and control . 11
5.2 Requirements for products and services . 12
5.2.1 Customer communication . 12
5.2.2 Determining the requirements for products and services . 12
5.2.3 Review of the requirements for products and services . 12
5.2.4 Organization manufacturing feasibility . 13
5.3 Design and development of products and services . 13
5.3.1 Design and development planning . 13
5.3.2 Design and development inputs . 13
5.3.3 Design and development controls . 13
5.3.4 Design and development outputs . 14
5.3.5 Design and development changes . 14
5.3.6 Manufacturing process design inputs . 14
5.3.7 Manufacturing process design outputs . 14
5.4 Control of externally provided processes, products and services . 15
5.4.1 General . 15
5.4.2 Type and extent of control . 15
5.4.3 Information on external providers . 16
5.5 Production and service provision . 16
5.5.1 Control of production and service provision . 16
5.5.2 Control plan . 16
5.5.3 Control plan for the measurement procedure . 17
5.5.4 Control plan for all solar simulators used for performance rating . 17
5.5.5 Validation of processes for production and services provisions . 18
5.5.6 Identification and traceability . 18
5.5.7 Customer property . 18
5.5.8 Preservation of product . 18
5.5.9 Post-delivery activities . 19
5.6 Control of nonconforming outputs . 19
6 Performance evaluation . 19
6.1 Monitoring, measurement, analysis and evaluation . 19
6.1.1 Monitoring and measurement of a manufacturing process . 19
6.1.2 Monitoring and measurement of product . 20
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6.1.3 Ongoing product monitoring . 20
6.2 Customer satisfaction . 21
6.3 Analysis and evaluation . 21
6.4 Internal audit . 21
7 Improvement . 21
7.1 Corrective and preventive action . 21
7.2 Continual improvement . 21
Annex A (informative) Correspondence between ISO 9001:2015 and IEC 62941 . 22
Bibliography . 25
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INTERNATIONAL ELECTROTECHNICAL COMMISSION
____________
TERRESTRIAL PHOTOVOLTAIC (PV) MODULES –
QUALITY SYSTEM FOR PV MODULE MANUFACTURING
FOREWORD
1) The International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) is a worldwide organization for standardization comprising
all national electrotechnical committees (IEC National Committees). The object of IEC is to promote
international co-operation on all questions concerning standardization in the electrical and electronic fields. To
this end and in addition to other activities, IEC publishes International Standards, Technical Specifications,
Technical Reports, Publicly Available Specifications (PAS) and Guides (hereafter referred to as “IEC
Publication(s)”). Their preparation is entrusted to technical committees; any IEC National Committee interested
in the subject dealt with may participate in this preparatory work. International, governmental and non-
governmental organizations liaising with the IEC also participate in this preparation. IEC collaborates closely
with the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in accordance with conditions determined by
agreement between the two organizations.
2) The formal decisions or agreements of IEC on technical matters express, as nearly as possible, an international
consensus of opinion on the relevant subjects since each technical committee has representation from all
interested IEC National Committees.
3) IEC Publications have the form of recommendations for international use and are accepted by IEC National
Committees in that sense. While all reasonable efforts are made to ensure that the technical content of IEC
Publications is accurate, IEC cannot be held responsible for the way in which they are used or for any
misinterpretation by any end user.
4) In order to promote international uniformity, IEC National Committees undertake to apply IEC Publications
transparently to the maximum extent possible in their national and regional publications. Any divergence
between any IEC Publication and the corresponding national or regional publication shall be clearly indicated in
the latter.
5) IEC itself does not provide any attestation of conformity. Independent certification bodies provide conformity
assessment services and, in some areas, access to IEC marks of conformity. IEC is not responsible for any
services carried out by independent certification bodies.
6) All users should ensure that they have the latest edition of this publication.
7) No liability shall attach to IEC or its directors, employees, servants or agents including individual experts and
members of its technical committees and IEC National Committees for any personal injury, property damage or
other damage of any nature whatsoever, whether direct or indirect, or for costs (including legal fees) and
expenses arising out of the publication, use of, or reliance upon, this IEC Publication or any other IEC
Publications.
8) Attention is drawn to the Normative references cited in this publication. Use of the referenced publications is
indispensable for the correct application of this publication.
9) Attention is drawn to the possibility that some of the elements of this IEC Publication may be the subject of
patent rights. IEC shall not be held responsible for identifying any or all such patent rights.
International Standard IEC 62941 has been prepared by IEC technical committee 82: Solar
.
photovoltaic energy systems
The text of this International Standard is based on the following documents:
FDIS Report on voting
82/1635/FDIS 82/1641/RVD
Full information on the voting for the approval of this International Standard can be found in
the report on voting indicated in the above table.
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SIST EN IEC 62941:2020
IEC 62941:2019 © IEC 2019 – 5 –
This document has been drafted in accordance with the ISO/IEC Directives, Part 2.
The committee has decided that the contents of this document will remain unchanged until the
stability date indicated on the IEC website under "http://webstore.iec.ch" in the data related to
the specific document. At this date, the document will be
• reconfirmed,
• withdrawn,
• replaced by a revised edition, or
• amended.
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TERRESTRIAL PHOTOVOLTAIC (PV) MODULES –
QUALITY SYSTEM FOR PV MODULE MANUFACTURING
1 Scope
This document is applicable to organizations manufacturing photovoltaic (PV) modules
certified to IEC 61215 series and IEC 62108 for design qualification and type approval and
IEC 61730 for safety qualification and type approval. The design qualification and type
approval of PV modules depend on appropriate methods for product and process design, as
well as appropriate control of materials and processes used to manufacture the product. This
document lays out best practices for product design, manufacturing processes, and selection
and control of materials used in the manufacture of PV modules that have met the
requirements of IEC 61215 series, IEC 61730, or IEC 62108. These standards also form the
basis for factory audit criteria of such sites by various certifying and auditory bodies.
The object of this document is to provide a framework for the improved confidence in the
ongoing consistency of performance and reliability of certified PV modules. The requirements
of this document are defined with the assumption that the quality management system of the
organization has already fulfilled the requirements of ISO 9001 or equivalent quality
management system. This document is not intended to replace or remove any requirements of
ISO9001 or equivalent quality management system. By maintaining a manufacturing system in
accordance with this document, PV modules are expected to maintain their performance as
determined from the test sequences in IEC 61215 series, IEC 62108, or IEC 61730.
This document is applicable to all PV modules independent of design and technology, i.e. flat
panel, concentrator photovoltaic (CPV). Quality controls for CPV and nonconventional flat-
plate manufacturing will differ somewhat from those of more conventional designs; this
document has not considered these differences.
2 Normative references
The following documents are referred to in the text in such a way that some or all of their
content constitutes requirements of this document. For dated references, only the edition
cited applies. For undated references, the latest edition of the referenced document (including
any amendments) applies.
IEC 60812: Failure modes and effects analysis (FMEA and FMECA)
IEC 60891, Photovoltaic devices – Procedure for temperature and irradiance corrections to
measured I-V characteristics
IEC 60904-1, Photovoltaic devices – Part 1: Measurement of photovoltaic current-voltage
characteristics
IEC 60904-2, Photovoltaic devices – Part 2: Requirements for photovoltaic reference devices
IEC 60904-3, Photovoltaic devices – Part 3: Measurement principles for terrestrial
photovoltaic (PV) solar devices with reference spectral irradiance data
IEC 60904-4, Photovoltaic devices – Part 4: Reference solar devices – Procedures for
establishing calibration traceability
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IEC 62941:2019 © IEC 2019 – 7 –
IEC 60904-7, Photovoltaic devices – Part 7: Computation of the spectral mismatch correction
for measurements of photovoltaic devices
IEC 60904-9, Photovoltaic devices – Part 9: Solar simulator performance requirements
IEC 61215 (all parts), Terrestrial photovoltaic (PV) modules – Design qualification and type
approval
IEC 61730-1, Photovoltaic (PV) module safety qualification – Part 1: Requirements for
construction
IEC 61730-2, Photovoltaic (PV) module safety qualification – Part 2: Requirements for testing
IEC TS 61836, Solar photovoltaic energy systems – Terms, definitions and symbols
IEC 61853-1, Photovoltaic (PV) module performance testing and energy rating – Part 1:
Irradiance and temperature performance measurements and power rating
IEC 62108, Concentrator photovoltaic (CPV) modules and assemblies – Design qualification
and type approval
IEC 62759-1, Photovoltaic (PV) modules – Transportation testing – Part 1: Transportation and
shipping of module package units
IEC TS 62915, Photovoltaic (PV) modules – Type approval, design and safety qualification –
Retesting
ISO/IEC Guide 98-3:2008, Uncertainty of measurement – Part 3: Guide to the expression of
uncertainty in measurement
ISO 9001:2015, Quality management systems – Requirements
3 Terms, definitions and abbreviated terms
For the purposes of this document, the terms and definitions given in IEC TS 61836 and the
following apply.
ISO and IEC maintain terminological databases for use in standardization at the following
addresses:
• IEC Electropedia: available at http://www.electropedia.org/
• ISO Online browsing platform: available at http://www.iso.org/obp
3.1
containment
action taken to protect the customer from the effect of a harmful situation
Note 1 to entry: Containment may include correcting an existing situation or adding additional screening or
retesting.
3.2
control plan
documented description of the systems and processes, and controls required for maintaining
the product and process quality as well as reaction to non-conformance
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3.3
customer
end user, investor, installer who purchases modules from the organization for their own use
3.4
design lifetime
design target period during which PV modules are expected to safely satisfy the specified
performance under the specified conditions
Note 1 to entry: Specified conditions include application of use, installation environment configurations and
operation conditions of the PV module in use. The design target period is set considering changes in performance
of PV modules due to aging degradation of parts and materials used in the stated environment.
3.5
Design Failure Mode and Effects Analysis
DFMEA
application of the Failure Mode and Effects Analysis (FMEA) method specifically to design
activities related to the product/service
3.6
Define, Measure, Analyse, Improve, Control
DMAIC
data-driven quality strategy for improving processes and an integral part of a Six Sigma
quality initiative
3.7
Electrostatic discharge
ESD
transfer of electric charge between bodies of different electric potential in proximity or through
direct contact
Note 1 to entry: Electrostatic discharge (ESD) events are known to damage semiconductor devices such as
diodes.
3.8
Failure, Modes and Effects Analysis
FMEA
document that defines the design, process, or solution with requirements and includes
potential modes, causes and severity of effects of failure, along with an evaluation of the
likelihood of their occurrence and ease of detection
Note 1 to entry: FMEA provides a mechanism to prioritize the risks and take appropriate mitigation steps.
3.9
key materials
those materials that affect safety, reliability, product performance, or lifetime of the PV
module
Note 1 to entry: Key materials may include indirect materials. Those materials which are used during the
manufacturing process of PV modules, but are not found in the end product. In most chemical processes,
catalyzers are indirect materials.
3.10
organization
entity that supplies modules to the customer and that has responsibility for design, production,
and after-sales service for the modules or entity that owns the trademark of the PV modules
Note 1 to entry: The organization may subcontract some of its responsibilities for design, production, and the
after-sales service.
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3.11
out of control action plan
OCAP
supporting document to an SPC (Statistical Process Control) chart
Note 1 to entry: An OCAP is typically presented as a flowchart that guides manufacturing floor employees'
reactions to out-of-control situations.
Note 2 to entry: An OCAP consists of activators (which define out-of-control conditions); checkpoints (which are
likely causes for the conditions); and terminators (which contain the action that should resolve the conditions).
Note 3 to entry: OCAPs should be dynamic and updated continually as and when new knowledge and information
become available. A frequently occurring OCAP activator is an indication of a systemic issue in the process.
3.12
Plan, Do, Check, Act
PDCA
four-step process for quality improvement
Note 1 to entry: In the first step (Plan), a way to affect improvement is developed. In the second step (Do), the
plan is carried out, preferably on a small scale. In the third step (Check), a study takes place between what was
predicted and what was observed in the previous step. In the last step (Act), action is taken on the causal system
to affect the desired change.
3.13
Process Failure Modes and Effects Analysis
PFMEA
application of the FMEA method specifically to manufacturing process and activities to the
product/service
3.14
prototype
early sample, model, or release of a product built to test a concept or process, but may not
have been produced with the intended future processes
3.15
Quality Management System
QMS
formalized system that documents the structure, responsibilities, and procedures required to
achieve effective quality management
3.16
quality plan
document, or several documents, that together specify quality standards, practices, resources,
specifications, and the sequence of activities relevant to a particular product, service, project,
or contract
3.17
reliability
ability of an item to perform a required function under given conditions for a given time
interval
3.18
repeatability
closeness of agreement between the results of successive measurements of the same
measurand, carried out under the same conditions of measurement, i.e.:
– by the same measurement procedure,
– by the same observer,
– with the same measuring instruments, used under the same conditions,
– in the same laboratory,
– at relatively short intervals of time
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Note 1 to entry: The concept of "measurement procedure" is defined in VIM:2007,2.5.
3.19
reproducibility
closeness of agreement between the results of measurements of the same value of a quantity,
when the individual measurements are made under different conditions of measurement:
– principle of measurement,
– method of measurement,
– observer,
– measuring instruments,
– reference standards,
– laboratory,
– under conditions of use of the instruments, different from those customarily used,
– after intervals of time relatively long compared with the duration of a single measuremen
...
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